The exact time when the first St. Olaf’s Church building was constructed remains uncertain. Historical records show that in 1267, Margaret, mother of the Danish King Erik VI Klipping, granted the patronage rights over St. Olaf’s Church and its parish to the Cistercian nunnery of St. Michael. This is the first written record of the church. That year—or slightly earlier—has often been considered the time of its construction. According to this view, the church was built only after the Danish conquest of the Estonian stronghold and the founding of Tallinn.
However, in 1951, a work by Paul Johansen, former head of the Tallinn City Archives, proposed that before the arrival of the Danes, there had already been an Estonian stronghold and settlement here, as well as a Scandinavian trading yard with a church—St. Olaf’s Church. This claim has not yet been proven archaeologically or by written sources, but it remains a plausible and unrefuted hypothesis.
Evidence suggesting the church existed before the 13th century
The period from the 9th to the mid-11th century is known as the Viking Age in Scandinavia. Toward the end of this period, the trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” emerged, partly passing through Estonian waters—from near Naissaar along the northern coast of Estonia to the mouth of the Neva River. To protect themselves from coastal raids by Estonians, mutual
defense agreements were necessary, as was common at the time. At the same time, early feudal relations were developing among Estonians, drawing them into international trade. Trade agreements often included clauses establishing mutual trading posts. For example, around 1080, merchants from Gotland had their own St. Olaf’s Church in Novgorod, and by the late 12th century also a trading yard. Similarly, there was a Russian church dedicated to St. Nicholas in Gotland, likely accompanied by a trading post.
It has been proven that a Russian church with a cemetery existed in Tallinn at that time. If the Russians had their own church-trading complex, it is plausible that Scandinavians—who had even closer ties with Estonians—had one as well.
All Scandinavian missionary activities in Estonia, along with other factors, support the idea that before the Danish arrival there were already both Estonian and Scandinavian Christians in Tallinn. If there were Christians, there must also have been a place of worship, as Roman Catholic practice has always been tied to sacred buildings.
Legends about the construction of churches usually remain within a single parish, but those concerning St. Olaf’s Church are widespread. They have been recorded in 45 parishes with a total of 91 variations. Generally, these legends tell of Kalev building the church, but upon hearing his name called, he falls from the tower of St. Olaf’s and dies. Similar legends are found among the Livonians and especially among Scandinavians. Their wide distribution suggests either the exceptional nature or great age of the church. Folklorist Oskar Loorits dated the origin of these legends in Estonia to the 12th century—before the Danish conquest.
The church is named after the Norwegian king Olav Haraldsson (995–1030), who took part in Viking expeditions in Western Europe in his youth, was baptized there, and upon returning to Norway in 1015 freed it from Danish and Swedish rule. He ruled until 1028, when he was forced into exile in Kyiv due to a pagan uprising and sought refuge with Prince Yaroslav the Wise. In 1030, he returned to reclaim power but was killed on July 29 in battle against the forces of King Cnut the Great. He was later canonized, and his death day became a national holiday in Norway. The cult of St. Olaf spread across Scandinavia and to Estonia, and the church in Tallinn bears his name.
Construction phases of the church
The original church
There is no information about the construction technique or architecture of the church built before 1219, nor is its exact location known. Possible locations include: the site of the current vestry, where traces of an earlier structure exist,
the chancel area, where fragments of buildings not belonging to the current church were found in 1958, the area opposite the present church between Lai and Laboratooriumi streets.
The church in the 14th century
At the beginning of the 14th century, construction of a new church began and was completed in. In 1364, a lower tower was built on a foundation 4.5 meters in diameter. At that time, the tower stood outside the church.
15th-century reconstruction
In the 15th century, the church was rebuilt and acquired its present late medieval form. First, a spacious new choir was constructed. Its architectural style is very similar to other contemporary buildings in Estonia, such as the Great Guild Hall and likely the churches of the Dominican and Pirita monasteries.
On May 11, 1433, a major fire broke out in Tallinn, destroying part of the city and leaving St. Olaf’s Church half in ruins. The choir was quickly restored and consecrated in 1439. At the same time, it was decided to enlarge the church. The earlier nave (built in 1330) and its chapels were demolished. Construction lasted from 1436 to 1450. The church became longer and wider,
reaching its current size. The new church was built as a three-aisled basilica. The central nave, covered with star vaults, rises to 31 meters, making it the tallest in the Baltic region. The stone part of the tower reaches 57 meters. The spire, completed in 1450, was about 159 meters high at the time, making it one of the tallest in Western Europe. In the 15th century, three chapels are mentioned: those of St. Mary, St. Olaf, and St. Lawrence. The church was surrounded by a cemetery located where Oleviste Street now runs.
The Chapel of St. Mary
The Chapel of St. Mary is first mentioned in 1404 but was demolished during the rebuilding of the nave. A new chapel was constructed between 1513 and 1523. It is a magnificent example of late Gothic architecture and one of the most richly detailed structures in Estonia. The chapel remained unfinished—sculptures are missing and the friezes incomplete—likely due to the arrival of the Reformation.
On the eastern exterior wall is the cenotaph of Hans Pawels, a church elder and main patron of the chapel’s construction. It consists of two parts: below is a wall tomb with a skeleton, a toad on its chest, and a snake near the skull; above are reliefs depicting scenes from the Passion of Christ:
- Entry into Jerusalem
- The Last Supper
- Prayer on the Mount of Olives
- Arrest
- Before Caiaphas
- Scourging
- Before Pilate
- Carrying the Cross
An inscription in Low German reads in translation:
“What I have given remains mine; what I have owned is lost.
No one should think too highly of themselves, for human life passes like smoke.”
Iconoclasm
The richly decorated church once contained 25 altars. With the Lutheran Reformation, which in Tallinn began at St. Olaf’s, popular religious fervor turned destructive. On September 15, 1524, much of the church’s valuable interior was destroyed during iconoclasm. The building itself, however, remained intact.
Fire of 1625
On the night of May 29, lightning struck the tower. The tower burned, the bells melted, and all interior furnishings acquired after the Reformation were destroyed. Only the walls remained. The church was quickly restored and reopened within three years. The octagonal tower with corner turrets was completed in 1651. St. Olaf’s Church has suffered from fires more than any other church in Tallinn. It has burned down completely at least three times, and lightning has struck the tower eight times.
Fire of 1820
On the night of June 16, lightning struck a corner tower. Although volunteers were ready to extinguish the fire, authorities ordered evacuation due to fear of spreading flames. The fire spread, engulfing the main tower, which collapsed. The blaze lasted four hours. Everything inside the church was destroyed—metal objects melted, tombstones cracked, and even stone
pillars were damaged. Only the walls and the valuable church library survived.
Reconstruction was supported by Tsar Alexander I and later Nicholas I. The church reopened for services on June 16, 1840.
Fire of 1931 Lightning struck the main tower again on July 27. The fire was extinguished, and the tower was
restored according to the original design. The gilded cross and spheres were cleaned but not
regilded. The sphere has a diameter of 114 cm. The tower’s current height is 123.7 meters.
The church after 1950
In September 1950, the building—heavily damaged by war—was handed over to the Tallinn Oleviste Congregation of the Union of Evangelical Christians-Baptists. Restoration began immediately after the reopening service on September 17, 1950, and was completed by December 23 the same year.
In 1954, extensive interior renovations were carried out. Thick layers of soot and dirt accumulated over decades were removed, restoring the church’s interior dignity.
French cultural figure and diplomat Catala once described the architecture of St. Olaf’s Church as “stripped Gothic.” Compared to Western European Gothic cathedrals, it is outwardly simple, yet in its simplicity it is imposing. Due to its size and uniqueness, it is one of the most remarkable buildings in Estonia. All elements of the structure—especially the powerful tower
rising toward the clouds with its golden cross—emphasize an upward striving.
Ernst Ader
Ernst Ader (1898–1991) was a researcher of Estonian church history and a preacher at St. Olaf’s Congregation.